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The study of the physiological and pathophysiological processes in the cardiovascular system is one of the important contemporary issues, which is addressed in many works. In this work, several approaches to the mathematical modelling of the blood flow are considered. They are based on the spatial order reduction and/or use a steady-state approach. Attention is paid to the discussion of the assumptions and suggestions, which are limiting the scope of such models. Some typical mathematical formulations are considered together with the brief review of their numerical implementation. In the first part, we discuss the models, which are based on the full spatial order reduction and/or use a steady-state approach. One of the most popular approaches exploits the analogy between the flow of the viscous fluid in the elastic tubes and the current in the electrical circuit. Such models can be used as an individual tool. They also used for the formulation of the boundary conditions in the models using one dimensional (1D) and three dimensional (3D) spatial coordinates. The use of the dynamical compartment models allows describing haemodynamics over an extended period (by order of tens of cardiac cycles and more). Then, the steady-state models are considered. They may use either total spatial reduction or two dimensional (2D) spatial coordinates. This approach is used for simulation the blood flow in the region of microcirculation. In the second part, we discuss the models, which are based on the spatial order reduction to the 1D coordinate. The models of this type require relatively small computational power relative to the 3D models. Within the scope of this approach, it is also possible to include all large vessels of the organism. The 1D models allow simulation of the haemodynamic parameters in every vessel, which is included in the model network. The structure and the parameters of such a network can be set according to the literature data. It also exists methods of medical data segmentation. The 1D models may be derived from the 3D Navier – Stokes equations either by asymptotic analysis or by integrating them over a volume. The major assumptions are symmetric flow and constant shape of the velocity profile over a cross-section. These assumptions are somewhat restrictive and arguable. Some of the current works paying attention to the 1D model’s validation, to the comparing different 1D models and the comparing 1D models with clinical data. The obtained results reveal acceptable accuracy. It allows concluding, that the 1D approach can be used in medical applications. 1D models allow describing several dynamical processes, such as pulse wave propagation, Korotkov’s tones. Some physiological conditions may be included in the 1D models: gravity force, muscles contraction force, regulation and autoregulation.

This article discusses the features of the numerical solutions of some problems for cnoidal waves, which are periodic solutions of the classical Korteweg – de Vries equation of the traveling wave type. Exact solutions describing these waves were obtained by communicating the autowave approximation of the Korteweg – de Vries equation to ordinary functions of the third, second, and finally, first orders. Referring to a numerical example shows that in this way ordinary differential equations are not equivalent. The theorem formulated and proved in this article and the remark to it include the set of solutions of the first and second order, which, in their ordinal, are not equivalent. The ordinary differential equation of the first order obtained by the autowave approximation for the description of a cnoidal wave (a periodic solution) and a soliton (a solitary wave). Despite this, from a computational point of view, this equation is the most inconvenient. For this equation, the Lipschitz condition for the sought-for function is not satisfied in the neighborhood of constant solutions. Hence, the existence theorem and the unique solutions of the Cauchy problem for an ordinary differential equation of the first order are not valid. In particular, the uniqueness of the solution to the Cauchy problem is violated at stationary points. Therefore, for an ordinary differential equation of the first order, obtained from the Korteweg – de Vries equation, both in the case of a cnoidal wave and in the case of a soliton, the Cauchy problem cannot be posed at the extremum points. The first condition can be a set position between adjacent extremum points. But for the second, third and third orders, the initial conditions can be set at the growth points and at the extremum points. In this case, the segment for the numerical solution greatly expands and periodicity is observed. For the solutions of these ordinary solutions, the statements of the Cauchy problems are studied, and the results are compared with exact solutions and with each other. A numerical realization of the transformation of a cnoidal wave into a soliton is shown. The results of the article have a hemodynamic interpretation of the pulsating blood flow in a cylindrical blood vessel consisting of elastic rings.

In this paper a numerical model for blood flow through a venous bifurcation with an obliterating clot is investigated. We studied propagation of perturbations of blood flow velocity and perturbations of pressure inside the vein. The model is built in acoustic (linear) approximation. Computational results reveal conditions for clot resonance oscillation, which can cause its detachment and thromboembolism.

The paper considers models of platelet thrombus formation in blood plasma flow in a cylindrical vessel, based on the “advection–diffusion” equation and the Fokker–Planck equation. The comparison of the results of calculations based on these models is given. Considered models show qualitatively similar behavior at the initial stage of thrombus formation. А detailed investigation of large clots requires models’ improvement.

The purpose of research was to develop a mathematical model for pulsating blood flow in the part of aorta with their branches. Since the deformation of this most solid part of the aorta is small during the passage of the pulse wave, the blood vessels were considered as non-deformable curved cylinders. The article describes the internal structure of blood and some internal structural effects. This analysis shows that the blood, which is essentially a suspension, can only be regarded as a non-Newtonian fluid. In addition, the blood can be considered as a liquid only in the blood vessels, diameter of which is much higher than the characteristic size of blood cells and their aggregate formations. As a non-Newtonian fluid the viscous liquid with the power law of the relationship of stress with shift velocity was chosen. This law can describe the behaviour not only of liquids but also dispersions. When setting the boundary conditions at the entrance into aorta, reflecting the pulsating nature of the flow of blood, it was decided not to restrict the assignment of the total blood flow, which makes no assumptions about the spatial velocity distribution in a cross section. In this regard, it was proposed to model the surface envelope of this spatial distribution by a part of a paraboloid of rotation with a fixed base radius and height, which varies in time from zero to maximum speed value. The special attention was paid to the interaction of blood with the walls of the vessels. Having regard to the nature of this interaction, the so-called semi-slip condition was formulated as the boundary condition. At the outer ends of the aorta and its branches the amounts of pressure were given. To perform calculations the tetrahedral computer network for geometric model of the aorta with branches has been built. The total number of meshes is 9810. The calculations were performed with use of the software package ABACUS, which has also powerful tools for creating geometry of the model and visualization of calculations. The result is a distribution of velocities and pressure at each time step. In areas of branching vessels was discovered temporary presence of eddies and reverse currents. They were born via 0.47 s from the beginning of the pulse cycle and disappeared after 0.14 s.

The biological structure is considered as an open nonequilibrium system which properties can be described on the basis of kinetic equations. New problems with nonequilibrium boundary conditions are introduced. The nonequilibrium distribution tends gradually to an equilibrium state. The region of spatial inhomogeneity has a scale depending on the rate of mass transfer in the open system and the characteristic time of metabolism. In the proposed approximation, the internal energy of the motion of molecules is much less than the energy of translational motion. Or in other terms we can state that the kinetic energy of the average blood velocity is substantially higher than the energy of chaotic motion of the same particles. We state that the relaxation problem models a living system. The flow of entropy to the system decreases in downstream, this corresponds to Shrödinger’s general ideas that the living system “feeds on” negentropy. We introduce a quantity that determines the complexity of the biosystem, more precisely, this is the difference between the nonequilibrium kinetic entropy and the equilibrium entropy at each spatial point integrated over the entire spatial region. Solutions to the problems of spatial relaxation allow us to estimate the size of biosystems as regions of nonequilibrium. The results are compared with empirical data, in particular, for mammals we conclude that the larger the size of animals, the smaller the specific energy of metabolism. This feature is reproduced in our model since the span of the nonequilibrium region is larger in the system where the reaction rate is shorter, or in terms of the kinetic approach, the longer the relaxation time of the interaction between the molecules. The approach is also used for estimation of a part of a living system, namely a green leaf. The problems of aging as degradation of an open nonequilibrium system are considered. The analogy is related to the structure, namely, for a closed system, the equilibrium of the structure is attained for the same molecules while in the open system, a transition occurs to the equilibrium of different particles, which change due to metabolism. Two essentially different time scales are distinguished, the ratio of which is approximately constant for various animal species. Under the assumption of the existence of these two time scales the kinetic equation splits in two equations, describing the metabolic (stationary) and “degradative” (nonstationary) parts of the process.

Atherosclerotic diseases such as carotid artery diseases (CAD) and chronic kidney diseases (CKD) are the major causes of death worldwide. The onset of these atherosclerotic diseases in the arteries are governed by complex blood flow dynamics and hemodynamic parameters. Atherosclerosis in renal arteries leads to reduction in arterial efficiency, which ultimately leads to Reno-vascular hypertension. This work attempts to identify the localization of atherosclerotic plaque in human abdominal aorta — renal artery junction using Computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

The atherosclerosis prone regions in an idealized human abdominal aorta-renal artery junction are identified by calculating relevant hemodynamic indicators from computational simulations using the rheologically accurate shear-thinning Yeleswarapu model for human blood. Blood flow is numerically simulated in a 3-D model of the artery junction using ANSYS FLUENT v18.2.

Hemodynamic indicators calculated are average wall shear stress (AWSS), oscillatory shear index (OSI), and relative residence time (RRT). Simulations of pulsatile flow (f=1.25 Hz, Re = 1000) show that low AWSS, and high OSI manifest in the regions of renal artery downstream of the junction and on the infrarenal section of the abdominal aorta lateral to the junction. High RRT, which is a relative index and dependent on AWSS and OSI, is found to overlap with the low AWSS and high OSI at the cranial surface of renal artery proximal to the junction and on the surface of the abdominal aorta lateral to the bifurcation: this indicates that these regions of the junction are prone to atherosclerosis. The results match qualitatively with the findings reported in literature and serve as initial step to illustrate utility of CFD for the location of atherosclerotic plaque.

In the present paper the application of the kinetic methods to the blood flow problems in elastic vessels is studied. The Lattice Boltzmann (LB) kinetic equation is applied. This model describes the discretized in space and time dynamics of particles traveling in a one-dimensional Cartesian lattice. At the limit of the small times between collisions LB models describe hydrodynamic equations which are equivalent to the Navier – Stokes for compressible if the considered flow is slow (small Mach number). If one formally changes in the resulting hydrodynamic equations the variables corresponding to density and sound wave velocity by luminal area and pulse wave velocity then a well-known 1D equations for the blood flow motion in elastic vessels are obtained for a particular case of constant pulse wave speed.

In reality the pulse wave velocity is a function of luminal area. Here an interesting analogy is observed: the equation of state (which defines sound wave velocity) becomes pressure-area relation. Thus, a generalization of the equation of state is needed. This procedure popular in the modeling of non-ideal gas and is performed using an introduction of a virtual force. This allows to model arbitrary pressure-area dependence in the resulting hemodynamic equations.

Two test case problems are considered. In the first problem a propagation of a sole nonlinear pulse wave is studied in the case of the Laplace pressure-area response. In the second problem the pulse wave dynamics is considered for a vessel bifurcation. The results show good precision in comparison with the data from literature.

We consider a one-dimensional three velocity kinetic lattice Boltzmann model, which represents a secondorder difference scheme for hydrodynamic equations. In the framework of kinetic theory this system describes the propagation and interaction of three types of particles. It has been shown previously that the lattice Boltzmann model with external virtual force is equivalent at the hydrodynamic limit to the one-dimensional hemodynamic equations for elastic vessels, this equivalence can be achieved with use of the Chapman – Enskog expansion. The external force in the model is responsible for the ability to adjust the functional dependence between the lumen area of the vessel and the pressure applied to the wall of the vessel under consideration. Thus, the form of the external force allows to model various elastic properties of the vessels. In the present paper the physiological boundary conditions are considered at the inlets and outlets of the arterial network in terms of the lattice Boltzmann variables. We consider the following boundary conditions: for pressure and blood flow at the inlet of the vascular network, boundary conditions for pressure and blood flow for the vessel bifurcations, wave reflection conditions (correspond to complete occlusion of the vessel) and wave absorption at the ends of the vessels (these conditions correspond to the passage of the wave without distortion), as well as RCR-type conditions, which are similar to electrical circuits and consist of two resistors (corresponding to the impedance of the vessel, at the end of which the boundary conditions are set and the friction forces in microcirculatory bed) and one capacitor (describing the elastic properties of arterioles). The numerical simulations were performed: the propagation of blood in a network of three vessels was considered, the boundary conditions for the blood flow were set at the entrance of the network, RCR boundary conditions were stated at the ends of the network. The solutions to lattice Boltzmann model are compared with the benchmark solutions (based on numerical calculations for second-order McCormack difference scheme without viscous terms), it is shown that the both approaches give very similar results.

The mechanisms of hydrodynamical activation of blood coagulation system are investigated in stenosed vessels for a wide range of Reynolds number values (from 10 up to 500). It is assumed that the vessel wall permeability for procoagulant factors rapidly increases when wall shear stress exceeds specific threshold value. A number of patterns of blood coagulation processes development are described. The influence of blood flow topology changes on activation of blood coagulation is explored. It is established that not only blood flow decrease, but also its increase may promote activation of blood coagulation. It was found that dependence of thrombogenic danger of stenosis on vessel lumen blockage ratio is non-monotonic. The relevance of obtained theoretical results for clinical practice is discussed.