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In the science development an important role the scientific schools are played. This schools are the associations of researchers connected by the common problem, the ideas and the methods used for problems solution. Usually Scientific schools are formed around the leader and the uniting idea.

The several sciences schools were created around academician A. S. Kholodov during his scientific and pedagogical activity.

This review tries to present the main scientific directions in which the bright science collectives with the common frames of reference and approaches to researches were created. In the review this common base is marked out. First, this is development of the group of numerical methods for hyperbolic type systems of partial derivatives differential equations solution — grid and characteristic methods. Secondly, the description of different numerical methods in the undetermined coefficients spaces. This approach developed for all types of partial equations and for ordinary differential equations.

On the basis of A. S. Kholodov’s numerical approaches the research teams working in different subject domains are formed. The fields of interests are including mathematical modeling of the plasma dynamics, deformable solid body dynamics, some problems of biology, biophysics, medical physics and biomechanics. The new field of interest includes solving problem on graphs (such as processes of the electric power transportation, modeling of the traffic flows on a road network etc).

There is the attempt in the present review analyzed the activity of scientific schools from the moment of their origin so far, to trace the connection of A. S. Kholodov’s works with his colleagues and followers works. The complete overview of all the scientific schools created around A. S. Kholodov is impossible due to the huge amount and a variety of the scientific results.

The attempt to connect scientific schools activity with the advent of scientific and educational school in Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology also becomes.

We consider the approaches to the construction of methods for solving four-dimensional programming problems for calculating directions for multiple minimizations of smooth functions on a set of a given set of linear equalities. The approach consists of two stages.

At the first stage, the problem of quadratic programming is transformed by a numerically stable direct multiplicative algorithm into an equivalent problem of designing the origin of coordinates on a linear manifold, which defines a new mathematical formulation of the dual quadratic problem. For this, a numerically stable direct multiplicative method for solving systems of linear equations is proposed, taking into account the sparsity of matrices presented in packaged form. The advantage of this approach is to calculate the modified Cholesky factors to construct a substantially positive definite matrix of the system of equations and its solution in the framework of one procedure. And also in the possibility of minimizing the filling of the main rows of multipliers without losing the accuracy of the results, and no changes are made in the position of the next processed row of the matrix, which allows the use of static data storage formats.

At the second stage, the necessary and sufficient optimality conditions in the form of Kuhn–Tucker determine the calculation of the direction of descent — the solution of the dual quadratic problem is reduced to solving a system of linear equations with symmetric positive definite matrix for calculating of Lagrange's coefficients multipliers and to substituting the solution into the formula for calculating the direction of descent.

It is proved that the proposed approach to the calculation of the direction of descent by numerically stable direct multiplicative methods at one iteration requires a cubic law less computation than one iteration compared to the well-known dual method of Gill and Murray. Besides, the proposed method allows the organization of the computational process from any starting point that the user chooses as the initial approximation of the solution.

Variants of the problem of designing the origin of coordinates on a linear manifold, a convex polyhedron and a vertex of a convex polyhedron are presented. Also the relationship and implementation of methods for solving these problems are described.

We consider integration Clein–Gordon and Dirac equations in Bianchi IX cosmology model. Using the noncommutative integration method we found the new exact solutions for Taub universe.

Noncommutative integration method for Bianchi IX model is based on the use of the special infinite-dimensional holomorphic representation of the rotation group, which is based on the nondegenerate orbit adjoint representation, and complex polarization of degenerate covector. The matrix elements of the representation of form a complete and orthogonal set and allow you to use the generalized Fourier transform. Casimir operator for rotation group under this transformation becomes constant. And the symmetry operators generated by the Killing vector fields in the linear differential operators of the first order from one dependent variable. Thus, the relativistic wave equation on the rotation group allow non-commutative reduction to ordinary differential equations. In contrast to the well-known method of separation of variables, noncommutative integration method takes into account the non-Abelian algebra of symmetry operators and provides solutions that carry information about the non-commutative symmetry of the task. Such solutions can be useful for measuring the vacuum quantum effects and the calculation of the Green’s functions by the splitting-point method.

The work for the Taub model compared the solutions obtained with the known, which are obtained by separation of variables. It is shown that the non-commutative solutions are expressed in terms of elementary functions, while the known solutions are defined by the Wigner function. And commutative reduced by the Klein–Gordon equation for Taub model coincides with the equation, reduced by separation of variables. A commutative reduced by the Dirac equation is equivalent to the reduced equation obtained by separation of variables.

The mathematical model of the magnetic memory cell MRAM with the in-plane anisotropy axis parallel to the edge of a free ferromagnetic layer (longitudinal anisotropy) has been constructed using approximation of uniform magnetization. The model is based on the Landau–Lifshits–Gilbert equation with the injection-current term in the Sloncžewski–Berger form. The set of ordinary differential equations for magnetization dynamics in a three-layered Co/Cu/Cu valve under the control of external magnetic field and spin-polarized current has been derived in the normal coordinate form. It was shown that the set of equations has two main stationary points on the anisotropy axis at any values of field and current. The stationary analysis of them has been performed. The algebraic equations for determination of additional stationary points have been derived. It has been shown that, depending on the field and current magnitude, the set of equations can have altogether two, four, or six stationary points symmetric in pairs relatively the anisotropy axis. The bifurcation diagrams for all the points have been constructed. The classification of the corresponding phase portraits has been performed. The typical trajectories were calculated numerically using Runge–Kutta method. The regions, where stable and unstable limit cycles exist, have been determined. It was found that the unstable limit cycles exist around the main stable equilibrium point on the axis that coincides with the anisotropy one, whereas the stable cycles surround the unstable additional points of equilibrium. The area of their existence was determined numerically. The new types of dynamics, such as accidental switching and non-complete switching, have been found. The threshold values of switching current and field have been obtained analytically. The estimations of switching times have been performed numerically.

We consider a numerically stable direct multiplicative algorithm of solving linear equations systems, which takes into account the sparseness of matrices presented in a packed form. The advantage of the algorithm is the ability to minimize the filling of the main rows of multipliers without losing the accuracy of the results. Moreover, changes in the position of the next processed row of the matrix are not made, what allows using static data storage formats. Linear system solving by a direct multiplicative algorithm is, like the solving with $LU$-decomposition, just another scheme of the Gaussian elimination method implementation.

In this paper, this algorithm is the basis for solving the following problems:

Problem 1. Setting the descent direction in Newtonian methods of unconditional optimization by integrating one of the known techniques of constructing an essentially positive definite matrix. This approach allows us to weaken or remove additional specific difficulties caused by the need to solve large equation systems with sparse matrices presented in a packed form.

Problem 2. Construction of a new mathematical formulation of the problem of quadratic programming and a new form of specifying necessary and sufficient optimality conditions. They are quite simple and can be used to construct mathematical programming methods, for example, to find the minimum of a quadratic function on a polyhedral set of constraints, based on solving linear equations systems, which dimension is not higher than the number of variables of the objective function.

Problem 3. Construction of a continuous analogue of the problem of minimizing a real quadratic polynomial in Boolean variables and a new form of defining necessary and sufficient conditions of optimality for the development of methods for solving them in polynomial time. As a result, the original problem is reduced to the problem of finding the minimum distance between the origin and the angular point of a convex polyhedron, which is a perturbation of the $n$-dimensional cube and is described by a system of double linear inequalities with an upper triangular matrix of coefficients with units on the main diagonal. Only two faces are subject to investigation, one of which or both contains the vertices closest to the origin. To calculate them, it is sufficient to solve $4n – 4$ linear equations systems and choose among them all the nearest equidistant vertices in polynomial time. The problem of minimizing a quadratic polynomial is $NP$-hard, since an $NP$-hard problem about a vertex covering for an arbitrary graph comes down to it. It follows therefrom that $P = NP$, which is based on the development beyond the limits of integer optimization methods.

A numerically stable direct multiplicative method for solving systems of linear equations that takes into account the sparseness of matrices presented in a packed form is considered. The advantage of the method is the calculation of the Cholesky factors for a positive definite matrix of the system of equations and its solution within the framework of one procedure. And also in the possibility of minimizing the filling of the main rows of multipliers without losing the accuracy of the results, and no changes are made to the position of the next processed row of the matrix, which allows using static data storage formats. The solution of the system of linear equations by a direct multiplicative algorithm is, like the solution with LU-decomposition, just another scheme for implementing the Gaussian elimination method.

The calculation of the Cholesky factors for a positive definite matrix of the system and its solution underlies the construction of a new mathematical formulation of the unconditional problem of quadratic programming and a new form of specifying necessary and sufficient conditions for optimality that are quite simple and are used in this paper to construct a new mathematical formulation for the problem of quadratic programming on a polyhedral set of constraints, which is the problem of finding the minimum distance between the origin ordinate and polyhedral boundary by means of a set of constraints and linear algebra dimensional geometry.

To determine the distance, it is proposed to apply the known exact method based on solving systems of linear equations whose dimension is not higher than the number of variables of the objective function. The distances are determined by the construction of perpendiculars to the faces of a polyhedron of different dimensions. To reduce the number of faces examined, the proposed method involves a special order of sorting the faces. Only the faces containing the vertex closest to the point of the unconditional extremum and visible from this point are subject to investigation. In the case of the presence of several nearest equidistant vertices, we investigate a face containing all these vertices and faces of smaller dimension that have at least two common nearest vertices with the first face.

A new type of cosmological models for the Universe that has no Beginning and evolves from the infinitely distant past is considered.

These models are alternative to the cosmological models based on the Big Bang theory according to which the Universe has a finite age and was formed from an initial singularity.

In our opinion, there are certain problems in the Big Bang theory that our cosmological models do not have.

In our cosmological models, the Universe evolves by compression from the infinitely distant past tending a finite minimum of distances between objects of the order of the Compton wavelength $\lambda_C$ of hadrons and the maximum density of matter corresponding to the hadron era of the Universe. Then it expands progressing through all the stages of evolution established by astronomical observations up to the era of inflation.

The material basis that sets the fundamental nature of the evolution of the Universe in the our cosmological models is a nonlinear Dirac spinor field $\psi(x^k)$ with nonlinearity in the Lagrangian of the field of type $\beta(\bar{\psi}\psi)^n$ ($\beta = const$, $n$ is a rational number), where $\psi(x^k)$ is the 4-component Dirac spinor, and $\psi$ is the conjugate spinor.

In addition to the spinor field $\psi$ in cosmological models, we have other components of matter in the form of an ideal liquid with the equation of state $p = w\varepsilon$ $(w = const)$ at different values of the coefficient $w (−1 < w < 1)$. Additional components affect the evolution of the Universe and all stages of evolution occur in accordance with established observation data. Here $p$ is the pressure, $\varepsilon = \rho c^2$ is the energy density, $\rho$ is the mass density, and $c$ is the speed of light in a vacuum.

We have shown that cosmological models with a nonlinear spinor field with a nonlinearity coefficient $n = 2$ are the closest to reality.

In this case, the nonlinear spinor field is described by the Dirac equation with cubic nonlinearity.

But this is the Ivanenko–Heisenberg nonlinear spinor equation which W.Heisenberg used to construct a unified spinor theory of matter.

It is an amazing coincidence that the same nonlinear spinor equation can be the basis for constructing a theory of two different fundamental objects of nature — the evolving Universe and physical matter.

The developments of the cosmological models are supplemented by their computer researches the results of which are presented graphically in the work.

The different types of the reduced equations are known in the dynamics a heavy rigid body with a fixed point. Since the Euler−Poisson’s equations admit the three first integrals, then for the first approach the obtaining new forms of equations are usually based on these integrals. The system of six scalar equations can be transformed to a third-order system with them. However, in indicated approach the reduced system will have a feature as in the form of radical expressions a relatively the components of the angular velocity vector. This fact prevents the effective the effective application of numerical and asymptotic methods of solutions research. In the second approach the different types of variables in a problem are used: Euler’s angles, Hamilton’s variables and other variables. In this approach the Euler−Poisson’s equations are reduced to either the system of second-order differential equations, or the system for which the special methods are effective. In the article the method of finding the reduced system based on the introduction of an auxiliary variable is applied. This variable characterizes the mixed product of the angular momentum vector, the vector of vertical and the unit vector barycentric axis of the body. The system of four differential equations, two of which are linear differential equations was obtained. This system has no analog and does not contain the features that allows to apply to it the analytical and numerical methods. Received form of equations is applied for the analysis of a special class of solutions in the case when the center of mass of the body belongs to the barycentric axis. The variant in which the sum of the squares of the two components of the angular momentum vector with respect to not barycentric axes is constant. It is proved that this variant exists only in the Steklov’s solution. The obtained form of Euler−Poisson’s equations can be used to the investigation of the conditions of existence of other classes of solutions. Certain perspectives obtained equations consists a record of all solutions for which the center of mass is on barycentric axis in the variables of this article. It allows to carry out a classification solutions of Euler−Poisson’s equations depending on the order of invariant relations. Since the equations system specified in the article has no singularities, it can be considered in computer modeling using numerical methods.

The article covers several mathematical problems relating to elastic stability of thin shells in view of inconsistencies that have been recently identified between the experimental data and the predictions based on the shallow- shell theory. It is highlighted that the contradictions were caused by new algorithms that enabled updating the values of the so called “low critical stresses” calculated in the 20th century and adopted as a buckling criterion for thin shallow shells by technical standards. The new calculations often find the low critical stress close to zero. Therefore, the low critical stress cannot be used as a safety factor for the buckling analysis of the thinwalled structure, and the equations of the shallow-shell theory need to be replaced with other differential equations. The new theory also requires a buckling criterion ensuring the match between calculations and experimental data.

The article demonstrates that the contradiction with the new experiments can be resolved within the dynamic nonlinear three-dimensional theory of elasticity. The stress when bifurcation of dynamic modes occurs shall be taken as a buckling criterion. The nonlinear form of original equations causes solitary (solitonic) waves that match non-smooth displacements (patterns, dents) of the shells. It is essential that the solitons make an impact at all stages of loading and significantly increase closer to bifurcation. The solitonic solutions are illustrated based on the thin cylindrical momentless shell when its three-dimensional volume is simulated with twodimensional surface of the set thickness. It is noted that the pattern-generating waves can be detected (and their amplitudes can by identified) with acoustic or electromagnetic devices.

Thus, it is technically possible to reduce the risk of failure of the thin shells by monitoring the shape of the surface with acoustic devices. The article concludes with a setting of the mathematical problems requiring the solution for the reliable numerical assessment of the buckling criterion for thin elastic shells.

The article discusses the model of the anthropomorphic type of mechanism of the exoskeleton with links of variable length. Four models of parts of variable length are considered comprehensively: the model link of the exoskeleton of variable length with a resilient member and a rigid strong core; the model of the telescopic link; the model link with the masses in the hinge-joint between them; the link model with an arbitrary number of masses. The differential equations of motion in the form of Lagrange equations of the second kind are made. On the basis of analysis of differential equations of motion for multi-link rod of a mechanical system type, exoskeleton revealed their structure, which allowed us to represent them in vector-matrix form. The General pattern of building matrices are established for the first time and the generalization of the expressions for elements of matrices in two-dimensional case are obtained. New recursive and matrix methods of composing of differential equations of motion are given. A unified approach to constructing differential equations of motion of the exoskeleton based on the developed recursive and matrix methods write differential equations of motion of the proposed exoskeleton. Comparison of the time of writing the differential equations of motion proposed methods, in comparison with the Lagrange equations of the second kind, in the system of computer mathematics Mathematica conducted. An analytical study of the model of the exoskeleton carried out. It was found that for mechanisms with n movable links of the Cauchy problem for systems of differential equations of motion for any initial conditions there is no single and unlimited continue. Control of the exoskeleton is accomplished using the torques which are located in the hinge-joints in the joints of the links and simulating control actions. Numerical investigation of a model of the exoskeleton is made, a comparison of results of calculations for exoskeletons with various models of units is held. A numerical study of the empirical evidence about the man and his movements is used. It is established that the choice structure of the exoskeleton model with lumped masses is more preferable to a model with perfectly rigid strong core. As an exoskeleton, providing comfortable movement of people, and you should repeat the properties of the musculoskeletal system.